What is the Science Behind Plastic Pollution?

This blog was co-written with Hannah De Frond. Hannah works with Ocean Conservancy and the University of Toronto Trash Team to manage the International Trash Trap Network (ITTN), a global network of local groups using trash traps to increase cleanup efforts, engage communities and inform upstream solutions. 

Over the past year-plus, scientists have made significant strides in understanding the scope, impact and potential solutions to the global plastic pollution crisis, and we’ve gathered them here by theme. Let’s dive in!

Where it comes from and where it’s going

Increasingly, scientists recognize plastics as a planetary-scale pollutant, disrupting key Earth systems including biodiversity, terrestrial, freshwater and marine health. Researchers are now identifying specific areas where plastic accumulation—and therefore, risk—may be greatest. A long-term study published last year showed that more than 70% of macroplastics released into rivers remain near their source, often trapped by floating vegetation which can hold plastic concentrations nearly 200 times higher than surrounding waters. These accumulations have led to the formation of so-called “river garbage patches,” some with plastic levels exceeding those found in the North Pacific Gyre.

Meanwhile, modelling efforts have expanded to estimate plastic concentrations in ecosystems beyond the ocean surface, including in the atmosphere, below the ocean surface, in inland waterways and in marine animals. Estimates published last year suggest that 3 to 11 million metric tons of plastic now reside on the ocean floor—up to 100 times more than at the surface—threatening deep-sea ecosystems vital to climate regulation. Coastal convergence zones—coastal waters wherecurrents and wind cause water from different areas to meet—were also recently found to be microplastic hotspots. These hotspots included more than 1,800 marine protected areas identified as under significant stress from microplastic pollution.

Human health and micro/nanoplastics

Recent research has further informed estimates of human exposure to micro- and nano- plastics through both diet and inhalation. One study co-authored by Ocean Conservancy found microplastics in nearly 90% of protein products tested—including beef, chicken, pork and plant-based samples. From this, we estimated that the average adult in the United States could ingest up to 3.8 million plastic particles annually from proteins alone. Drinks, dairy products and other non-protein food sources also serve as ingestion pathways.

But we don’t just eat plastics. A new study estimated that globally, adults breathe in an average of 1,355 plastic particles daily, or roughly 500,000 particles a year. From 1990 to 2018, researchers estimate human dietary and airborne microplastic exposure increased more than sixfold in some parts of the world, underscoring growing global concern.

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Plastic particles have now been found throughout the human body in arteries, stomach tissue, brains and reproductive systems, raising serious health concerns. One study published this year found that roughly 25% of the 16,325 chemicals associated with plastics are considered hazardous.” More worrisome is that the vast majority chemicals used in plastics remain unregulated and understudied. The health consequences are not only physiological but economic: In 2018 alone, plastic-related diseases cost the United States an estimated $249 billion, largely from exposure to plastic-associated chemicals as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs).

What we can do about it

As our knowledge about the extent and impacts of plastic pollution grows, so does public concern. An Ocean Conservancy-led study published last year found that in the United States, plastic pollution is seen as the greatest threat to the ocean, and there is strong public support for policies to solve this problem by holding plastic producers accountable.

Experts agree that solving the plastic crisis requires a full lifecycle approach and multinational collaboration, with one study showing that implementing four global interventions—a 40% recycled content mandate; a 2020 virgin production cap; a $50 billion investment in waste management infrastructure; and a plastic packaging tax—could reduce mismanaged plastic waste by 91% and plastic-related GHG emissions by one-third by 2050.

Policy momentum is building, with an increasing number of studies investigating the efficacy of actions addressing not just waste management but also upstream production and consumption. One 2025 study looking at data from Ocean Conservancy’s International Coastal Cleanup found that plastic bag bans and fees meaningfully reduce the relative amount of bags in beach litter by 25% to 47% in the United States, while a 2024 study estimated that a U.S. national deposit return scheme could significantly boost recycling rates for PET bottles from 24% to 82%. To support better decision-making and community action, science-backed tools such as the Circularity Assessment Protocol (CAP) have been developed to map waste flows and identify points for intervention.

Join us

While there is still a lot to learn, we know enough to act now. Here is how you can join the fight: 

• Push for policy change: Advocate for legislation to address plastic pollution by holding corporations accountable for the waste they create, expanding support for reuse and refill systems and much more. See how your state stacks up in efforts to tackle plastic pollution, and then visit Ocean Conservancy’s Action Center to see how you can get involved.
• Reduce plastic use: To tackle our plastic pollution crisis, we need to use less plastic. We can each do our part by avoiding single-use plastics where possible in our daily lives, from carrying a reusable water bottle and bag to skipping the straw. These small actions add up and collectively reduce the amount of plastic waste we create, while sending a clear signal to plastic producers that we are fed up with single-use plastics. 
• Clean up plastic pollution before it enters the ocean: Cleaning up plastic waste, whether on the beach, along a river, or in your neighborhood park, reduces the likelihood that it will later be consumed by marine life. One of the best ways to do this is by joining the International Coastal Cleanup (ICC). Use our map to find a coordinator planning a cleanup in your region. Want something closer to home? Team up with friends and family to clean up your favorite beach or beloved park. If you see plastics on beaches, shores or elsewhere, remember to clean them up and log what you found in our Clean Swell® app.

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How are Sharks Affected by Plastic Pollution?

It’s one of the best weeks of the year: Shark Week. As our finned friends get a lot of extra attention this week, I am reflecting on my love of sharks and the threats they’re facing. In fact, before I was an ocean plastics guy, I was a shark guy. And sadly, on a perfect sunny day in the tropics while searching for sharks, I also found plastics.

Two decades ago, I was researching these magnificent animals in the crystal-clear waters of the Turks and Caicos Islands (TCI) at the School for Field Studies. Each day, we’d take our research boats out in hopes of tagging juvenile lemon sharks to better understand their movements, site fidelity and nursing habitats in the shallow waters surrounding South Caicos. Every interaction with these animals was exhilarating, and quite often we’d get the bonus of spotting or tagging other species like bonnethead sharks, Caribbean reef sharks and even the awe-inspiring tiger shark—my personal favorite!

While out on shark patrol one Sunday afternoon along the eastern reef of South Caicos, I first encountered plastic pollution on a magnitude I had never previously seen. Due to the steep cliffs that backed the beach and the shallow reefs that protected it seaward, piles of plastics and debris that drifted over the reef and onto the sand remained stranded. And with little to no human access to these beaches in the early 2000s, the accumulations grew with each passing day.

Sharks are increasingly threatened by plastic pollution, primarily through entanglement and ingestion. At least 34 species have been reported entangled in plastic debris, although actual numbers are likely much higher due to underreporting. The most common item causing entanglement is abandoned, lost or discarded fishing gear (also known as “ghost gear”), though plastic strapping bands also pose a major risk. Looped plastics like strapping bands can constrict sharks, interfering with feeding and breathing.

Sharks are at risk from eating plastics, too. Plastic bags, plastic packets and even a boot have been found inside shark stomachs. And scientists believe microplastics may pose a particular risk to filter-feeding species like whale sharks, although hundreds to thousands of microplastics have been documented inside individual tiger and hammerhead sharks as well. There is still much more to learn and understand about the interactions and effects of plastics on sharks, but what is known raises concerns about the long-term impacts of plastic ingestion on shark health and ocean health more broadly.

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It was on that same reef in South Caicos in 2006, during a break from shark patrol and long before joining Ocean Conservancy where I first participated in the International Coastal Cleanup® (ICC). And like the millions of ICC volunteers around the world who participate each year, I too collected data on every item I picked up. And with each item, I was more and more curious, asking the questions: “Where did these plastics come from? “How the heck did they end up here?” and “This can’t be good for ocean animals, can it?”

I would later learn that the piles of debris that littered that stretch of coast came from all over the Caribbean. This was also my first glimpse of how the brands and languages on plastics provide valuable information to trace where trash comes from, an approach I still use to this day in fieldwork around the world. Further, it showcased the interconnectedness of the waters and people throughout the Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic Ocean.

These early, formative encounters with ocean plastics have stuck with me over the past 20 years, as have the sights of sharks effortlessly navigating their natural environments in those TCI waters. It is something that is forever lodged in my memory, something I never forget or tire of. Sharks have existed in our ocean for more than 400 million years, and over this time, they have perfected every aspect of their design. However, sharks were never meant to contend with the plastic pollution that now overwhelms every dimension of their marine environment.

Today, the most harrowing fact this Shark Week is that the plight of sharks has never been greater. And the scariest thing in the ocean isn’t a shark, it’s plastic pollution. Join Ocean Conservancy for Plastic Free July and beyond and call on your elected leaders to phase out wasteful, harmful single-use plastics.

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Do Beach Cleanups Really Work?

This blog was written by Hannah De Frond. Hannah works with Ocean Conservancy and the University of Toronto Trash Team to manage the International Trash Trap Network (ITTN), a global network of local groups using trash traps to increase cleanup efforts, engage communities and inform upstream solutions. 

There is no one-size-fits-all approach to solving the plastic pollution crisis. In addition to preventative actions like reducing plastic production and improving waste management systems, cleanups play a valuable role—and the greatest impacts to reduce plastic pollution will be achieved when all three of these strategies happen together. With Ocean Conservancy’s International Coastal Cleanup^® (ICC) season fast approaching, there’s no better time to remind ourselves of the positive impact of cleanup efforts around the world.

The scopes, types and sizes of cleanups vary widely. The ICC focuses on global-scale, human-powered, volunteer-led events that can range from just a couple of people picking up trash in their local park or beach to large groups of hundreds of people coming together for an event. Other types of cleanups, such as those used by groups in the International Trash Trap Network (ITTN), rely on a variety of cleanup technologies that can capture debris 24 hours a day. The ITTN is a global network of local groups working together to increase plastic pollution cleanup efforts using trash traps. Through each trash trap program, local stakeholders come together to clean up plastic pollution, engage and inform communities about the issue, and collect harmonized data to inform, empower and motivate upstream solutions to prevent future plastic pollution.

Cleanup technologies like trash traps also come in lots of different shapes and sizes. One of the key benefits of employing these devices is that they can be used to support volunteer-powered cleanups by accessing areas that are unsafe or inaccessible for humans. Some trash traps are also designed to clean up small plastic waste, such as microplastics, that manual cleanups often miss as they are difficult to see and pick up by hand. As all types of cleanups remove harmful debris (including plastics) from the environment, they all have value and make a positive contribution to the health of our ocean and our planet.

Up to 23 million metric tons of plastic waste are estimated to enter global aquatic ecosystems annually. This massive amount is expected to more than double by 2030 if we don’t change our relationship with plastic. Plastic waste persists for many years and breaks apart over time, eventually forming smaller and smaller pieces such as microplastics and nanoplastics that are notoriously difficult, if not impossible, to remove once they reach waterways, coasts or the ocean.

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The impacts of plastic pollution on ocean animals are widespread. To date, roughly 1,300 ocean species have been documented to ingest plastic. In particular, all seven species of sea turtles are known to ingest or become entangled in plastic, and more than half of marine mammal species, including whales and seals, also ingest plastic debris. Cleanups are necessary to reduce these animals’ chances of ingesting plastic which harms, or even kills, them.

By collecting data on the debris we collect, we can better understand local pollution sources which helps inform and prioritize specific solutions. We have seen this firsthand with ICC data that records counts, weights and categories of items removed. In 2022, data collected during the ICC were used to highlight the presence of single-use plastics in the environment, informing successful legislation in California (Senate Bill 54), creating targets for reducing single-use plastic, increasing recycling and improving recyclability of packaging and plastic foodware.

Cleanup data can also identify and trends in pollution over time and measure the effectiveness of specific policies aimed at reducing that pollution. For example, a trash trap in Baltimore named Mr. Trash Wheel captures and diverts plastic waste before it reaches the Baltimore Harbor. Each time Mr. Trash Wheel is emptied, data are collected on the weight and count of items it has retrieved. When polystyrene foam items were found in high numbers in Mr. Trash Wheel, activists used those data to inform a ban, passed in 2019, on disposable polystyrene foam products in Baltimore. In the next year, data from Mr. Trash Wheel revealed that foam containers had decreased by more than 80% in the harbor! By using data locally and sharing it through public platforms like Ocean Conservancy’s global database, TIDES, it be used by many groups for different needs, including scientific research and motivating policy change. To date, ICC data has been used in more than 40 published scientific studies and has been cited by more than 250 papers. In addition, these data have served as the backbone of policies enacted by governments throughout the world.

Cleanups are also a great way to create community and inspire hope by gathering with others who share the same passion. Involvement in cleanup efforts allows individuals to encounter the problems caused by plastic pollution firsthand, and often this experience empowers people to call for upstream solutions.

Cleaning up is a longstanding practice in many communities worldwide. By continuing cleanup efforts around the world and using them for both data collection and community education, we can reduce the impacts of existing plastic pollution while supporting other strategies to prevent it in the future. Alongside cleanups, Ocean Conservancy is working hard to keep plastics out of our ocean by pushing for policies to produce and use fewer plastics and improve the collection and management of the plastics we do use. It’s clear there’s much more work to be done to protect our ocean, and it will take all of us to tackle this issue through both individual action to reduce plastic pollution and using our voices to support policies that will drive the change we need—at the local, state and national levels.

Be sure to join Ocean Conservancy this September for the 40^th ICC this year and other events all year round. Find an International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) event near you, download the Clean Swell^® app to record the trash you collect, and take action for a cleaner ocean and healthier planet.

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How the Proposed Federal Budget Cuts Threaten Our Ocean

The administration released details earlier this month for the President’s Budget for Fiscal Year 2026 (FY26) and what it would mean for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Unfortunately, if passed as-is, the proposed federal budget would be a disaster for our ocean and Americans across the country who rely on NOAA’s services every day. 

From producing weather reports and tracking severe storms, supporting safe and efficient maritime navigation and ensuring fish and shellfish are safe to eat, to providing commercial, subsistence and recreational fishing opportunities and protecting marine mammals and endangered species, NOAA provides critical services that impact us every day.

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At a high level, the President’s FY26 budget proposes to cut $1.8 billion from NOAA’s topline funding—more than a quarter of the total amount. The budget proposal also calls for the complete elimination of programs, labs and cooperative institutes that provide essential services, including:

• Complete elimination of the research line office of NOAA, the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR): OAR provides the cutting-edge research that helps power all the other services NOAA provides. This includes the modeling capabilities for timely and accurate forecasts that are crucial to protecting lives and property. OAR also works to improve understanding of global weather systems and hazards, such as red tides. This research helps ensure safe boat trips and plentiful seafood, benefitting fisheries, aquaculture, coastal economies and communities.

• Elimination of research labs and cooperative institutes: By eliminating OAR, the budget would also eliminate its many laboratories that work in partnership with local universities and research institutions to produce research that advances our understanding of the ocean, climate, weather and more. Cutting this research will not only slow progress on the delivery of services and products, but it will also destroy locally important centers of learning and undermine the strength of the United States as a science leader.

• Elimination of the Sea Grant Program:  This 50-year-old federal-state partnership program focuses on unleashing the economic power of our coastal states and fisheries. Each federal dollar invested in Sea Grant and its 34 programs in coastal and Great Lakes states yielded $8.81 in economic benefit in 2023.

• Eliminating the U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS): This widely used network provides real-time observations of ocean conditions, ensuring safe fishing and shipping, enhancing emergency response and producing observational data for weather forecasting. These observations are also critical for tracking harmful algal blooms.  

• Elimination of the National Estuarine Research Reserves (NERRs): The administration has proposed defunding coastal reserves that draw millions of tourists to local communities, protect 1.4 million acres of wildlife habitat, support major fisheries and local fishing communities and generate millions of dollars in revenue. There are 30 NERRs across 23 states and Puerto Rico.

• Elimination of critical programs that support our nation’s fisheries: The administration has proposed eliminating NOAA’s Fisheries Office of Habitat Conservation, the Pacific Coast Salmon Recovery Fund and interjurisdictional fisheries grants. These eliminations will undercut the nation’s ability to manage and conserve coastal habitats that support fisheries and will impact our ability to manage and protect iconic Pacific Salmon and Steelhead populations.

The list above is comprised only of services that the administration has proposed to eliminate completely. Additional cuts, coupled with a 17% reduction in staff, will reduce NOAA’s services across the board, leaving it unable to help us safely put fish on the table, move goods across the country and go about our daily lives.

We need NOAA to be fully funded and fully staffed. We should be looking for ways to grow and improve these services, not leaving communities and businesses without critical resources that they need.

The good news is that this is just a proposal. It is now up to Congress to pass spending bills that keep these essential NOAA programs and services funded and staffed. For the safety of all Americans and for the health of our ocean, marine wildlife and coastal economies Congress must reject these harmful cuts to NOAA. Join Ocean Conservancy in taking action to safeguard NOAA now.

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