Meet the Crown-of-Thorns Starfish

Mesmerizing crowns. Gorgeous colors. Alien-like appearances beneath our ocean’s surface. There’s no doubt about it that crown-of-thorns starfish are fascinating animals. But don’t be fooled by the beautiful hues and interesting spikes … too many of these animals in one place can be destructive to coral reefs and dangerous to both humans and marine wildlife.

NOTE: Since they aren’t actually fish, scientists prefer people call animals of this type “sea stars” instead of “starfish.”But for the purpose of this blog (and the fact that it’s in their name), we’ll be referring to them as “crown-of-thorns starfish.”

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Native to coral reefs across the Indo-Pacific region and Great Barrier Reef, crown-of-thorns starfish are disc-shaped and have around 21 arms, all of which are covered in venomous spikes that are one inch or longer. They can grow to more than two feet and are brightly colored in shades of blue, purple, pink and red. Despite their size and vivid coloring, crown-of-thorns starfish can be difficult to find as they often take cover in various nooks and crannies. Contrary to their hard appearance, crown-of-thorns starfish are flexible and able to contour and twist their bodies to move around and fit into various areas.

Crown-of-thorns starfish consume coral by extending their stomachs away from their bodies, enveloping the corals with their stomachs and digesting the tissue. These animals can be an important part of the ecosystem when thriving in “normal” numbers as they focus on consuming the faster-growing coral while allowing the slower-growing coral a chance to thrive. Sadly, crown-of-thorns starfish become a serious problem for coral reefs when there is an “outbreak”—when 15 or more crown-of-thorns starfish are found in one hectare area, or 10,000 square meters. During an outbreak, crown-of-thorns starfish can strip a reef of nearly 90% of living coral tissue, causing irreparable damage.

Because they are difficult to kill and can regenerate themselves in a few short weeks, controlling the number of crown-of-thorns starfish is incredibly arduous. Following an outbreak, trained divers will inject crown-of-thorns starfish with a vinegar or bile salt solution in multiple spots, and within a few days, the crown-of-thorns starfish will die without inflicting harm on surrounding marine life or ecosystems.

There are a few predators in our ocean that are not impacted by the venom and can take on adult crown-of-thorns starfish: giant triton snails, titan triggerfish, starry pufferfish and humphead maori wrasse. However, due to overfishing of their main predator, giant triton snails, the crown-of-thorns starfish population has expanded exponentially.

Additionally, reproduction can happen at an astounding rate—a female can produce more than 60,000 eggs during her spawning season throughout the summer months, and large females can release more than 200 million eggs annually. Dead corals provide a habitat for juveniles to grow and live as they camp out in the reef and feast on algae as they grow.Our ocean’s coral reefs are not only in considerable danger due to crown-of-thorns starfish, but they’re experiencing unprecedented threats from marine heatwaves due to the climate crisis. Take action with Ocean Conservancy today to protect these lifelines of the sea before it’s too late

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What is a Stargazer?

The ocean is full of beautiful fish—the stargazer simply isn’t one of them. 

However, sometimes it’s the weird, wonderful, wacky fish that are the coolest, and the stargazer is no exception. Their wide, bugging eyes and perpetual frown will have you falling in love in no time.

Let’s dive in to learn more about the stargazer. 

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What are stargazers? 

The name “stargazer” can refer to any of the 50 or so species of fish in the family Uranoscopidae. In the United States, folks are likely most familiar with those in genus Astroscopus, a group of bony fish found in the Atlantic and Pacific waters in the Western Hemisphere. There are four known species of Astroscopus—the Northern, Southern, Brazilian and Pacific stargazer. The largest of the group are the Northern stargazers, which are found in the Western Atlantic and can grow to two feet long. 

How do stargazers get their name?

Uranoscopidae comes from the Greek words for “sky” and “to watch.” The name Astroscopus comes from the Greek word for “star” and the Latin word for “lookout”. Once you get a look at the stargazer, it totally makes sense: Their eyes sit on the top of their heads, pointing directly upwards towards the “stars.” This feature that inspired their name is also what makes these fish look so distinctive. 

What do stargazers eat? 

You can deduce how stargazers hunt by looking at their eyes. Having eyes on the top of their heads means they can bury themselves in the sand and use their eyes like little telescopes. They can stay perfectly hidden and wait for an unsuspecting fish or other prey to come by, then the stargazer will ambush their meal. Like other “sit-and-wait predators,” ambush predators like stargazers conserve energy by concealing themselves.

Are stargazers dangerous?

Stargazers have a few tricks up their sleeves (fins?) to protect themselves from harm. Some species are venomous and have two spines that can shoot unpleasant toxins into the flesh of a threatening animal. Other species have special organs behind their eyes that produce electric currents that can shock potential predators. A venomous, shocking and weird looking animal—what more could you ask for?

 Here at Ocean Conservancy, we know that all animals deserve a healthy and clean ocean for their homes. Check out our Action Center to see how you can help protect our ocean so animals like stargazers can thrive. 

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Get Loud for Trumpetfish

Did you know that scientists estimate there are trillions of fish alive in our ocean today? About 20,000 marine fish species are currently known to science, and sometimes it can be hard to tell them apart. Some fish, however, are so unique that you can identify them in what feels like an instant. Let’s dive in and meet one of these stars of the sea: the trumpetfish.

Thriving in shallow reef ecosystems of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, trumpetfish are cousins to seahorses and pipefish, and their similarities go beyond their appearance. Just like seahorses, female trumpetfish rely on males during gestation. They transfer their eggs to a male’s special pouch, where the eggs are then fertilized and incubated until it’s time for larvae to be released into the sea. 

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Also similar to seahorses, they have dramatically elongated bodies with tubular snouts (proportionally longer than seahorses). These carnivores are quite a spectacle to see, and their straw-like mouths are designed to quickly suck up prey such as small fish, shrimp and other tiny invertebrates.

Though very identifiable to us, trumpetfish aren’t always so easily spotted by their prey. They use a combination of camouflage and ambush tactics to strike prey before the unsuspecting target knows what happened.

First, trumpetfish have understated, transparent dorsal and anal fins that enable them to swim both backward and forward (usually vertically) without attracting attention. They use these fins to hover virtually motionless near corals and rocky ledges, waiting for the perfect moment to spring into action. While they activate “stealth mode,” cells called chromatophores help them to blend in with their surroundings. These cells are even thought to help male trumpetfish impress females during courting season, though their primary role is to provide a masterful disguise.

It’s fascinating that camouflage isn’t the only tool that these strategic sea stalkers have under their belts. Trumpetfish are also known to exhibit very cunning behavior. Many trumpetfish prey live in or around seagrass beds or soft corals, where small fish are known to hang out. When fish schools are nearby, trumpetfish will swim alongside them, patiently waiting until their desired prey is pushed out into the open.

Once a target has been spotted, it’s ambush time. Pouncing at prey with their mouths in a quick darting motion, a trumpetfish then sucks up its meal like a straw before swallowing it whole. These fish even have specialized jaws that can open to nearly the size of their entire body, if needed.

While what scientists know about trumpetfish is fascinating, in reality, there’s still much we need to understand about these animals. They are tricky to spot in the wild (probably partially due to their excellent hide-and-seek skills), and there isn’t currently enough known about them to properly estimate their conservation status. Regardless, trumpetfish rely on healthy, thriving coral reefs and seagrass beds. The deterioration of these ecosystems as a result of the impacts of climate change, such as ocean acidification, poses a threat for these unique marine animals.

A diverse, healthy ocean full of thriving wildlife depends on what we do today to protect our blue planet. Ocean Conservancy is working on the frontlines of ocean protection, striving to develop, implement and support evidence-based solutions to our ocean’s biggest challenges, including climate change.

Take action today and tell your representatives that ocean climate action is not a want, but a need. Animals like trumpetfish, and so many other species, are counting on us.

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What is a Bearded Fireworm?

When I think of worms, I think of going for a walk on a rainy day and seeing (and smelling) the earthworms on the sidewalk exploring their aboveground surroundings. Did you know that worms also live in our ocean? Yes, it’s true. Sometimes, I have a hard time grappling with that fact. Yes, worms do live in the ocean. Marine worms live in nearly all areas of the ocean and are a part of the larger ocean ecosystem. One type of marine worm is the bearded fireworm. It’s brightly colored, which in the wild often means—danger! Let’s learn all about the fireworm.

Bearded Fireworm

Hermodice carunculata

The bearded fireworm is a type of marine bristleworm that belongs to the Amphinomidae family.

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Physical appearance

Due to their beautiful, bright red-orange coloring, fireworms are often a favorite for marine photographers. In addition to the red-orange color, fireworms can also be green, yellow or gray in color. Their shape and size look a bit like a centipede. The average size of fireworms is usually between 5-10 centimeters in length, but can reach up to 35 centimeters. Their body has between 60 and 150 separate segments. 

Apart from the head and last (or end) body segment, all the other segments are completely identical. Each segment contains two paddles or “legs” called parapodia for swimming, moving around or burrowing. Each segment also has clusters of stinging white bristles and red or orange gills. The mouth is on the bottom side of their second segment. Their head, containing eyes and sensory organs, is on their first segment.

Look, but don’t touch!

Fireworms produce a stinging sensation if touched. Fireworms are covered with fine, white, brittle bristles that break if touched. They are used as a defense mechanism—easily embedding into the skin of whatever predator has come into contact with it.  

The bearded fireworm “toxins” produce an intense burning irritation in the area of contact. The sting can also lead to nausea and dizziness. A painful sensation can last up to a few hours after contact. 

Scientists have not yet concluded about what chemical substance is part of the stinging process. Research suggest that they are venomous and use a series of toxins to defend themselves Only time (and more research) will reveal the specifics. 

Not a dragon

Fireworm is also a type of dragon from the animated movie and tv show How to Train Your Dragon. The ocean fireworm is not the same as the dragon. 

Diet and reproduction

Bearded fireworms are predators. They feed on soft and hard corals, anemones and small crustaceans. They “crawl” on the tip of coral reef branches and feed on the coral tissue, removing it from the coral skeleton. You can tell where a fireworm has been dining because the coral will have a lack of color on the eaten area. 

Bearded fireworms are nocturnal, which means they are active during the night and usually hidden during daytime.

Did you know?

Bearded fireworms emit bioluminescence during their mating ritual.

The bearded fireworm can reproduce through both asexual and sexual means. Asexual—their bodies divide into separate parts and regenerate to become new individuals. Sexual—they can reproduce through regular spawning—this typically occurs two to five days after a full moon. Females emit a bioluminscent glow, attracting males to the surface, where they flash their colors as well. As they move toward each other, they shed and combine their sex cells.

Habitat and range

Bearded fireworms can be found near ocean reefs and at depths of up to 500 feet. They are common throughout the tropical western Atlantic as well as the mid-Atlantic. On the eastern side they are found from Algeria to Liberia, and on the western side from the southeast coast of the United States to Guyana, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. 

Don’t count on seeing the bearded fireworms at your local aquarium—since they are so hostile, they are usually not held in aquariums.  

Age and population status

Bearded fireworms live between two and three years.

The conservation status of the bearded fireworm is not listed in the International Union for Conservation of Nature database. Their status and population size are unknown. Not enough research has been conducted on this species to know what threatens them. 

Part of a healthy ocean ecosystem

Fireworms, like other segmented worms, help in the decomposition process. They convert organic ocean debris into carbon dioxide, which is then used by the plankton to help with photosynthesis.

How you can help coral reefs and the animals who depend on them  

It’s up to all of us to help protect marine fireworms, coral reefs and all the animals living in the sea. Ocean Conservancy is working with you to protect the ocean from today’s greatest global challenges. Together, we create evidence-based solutions for a healthy ocean and the wildlife and communities that depend on it.

Please make a donation to Ocean Conservancy—give today and make a difference for the future of our ocean!

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Navigating Troubled Waters: Breaking Down the 2023 Status of Stocks Report

The 2023 Status of Stocks report illustrates the challenges of managing U.S. fisheries sustainably in an era where climate change is not down the road—it has already arrived. Overfishing remains a persistent issue, and rebuilding efforts continue to fall short of needed progress. To make rebuilding plans effective and restore healthy conditions, NOAA Fisheries must prioritize ecosystem considerations. Adapting management approaches to incorporate the changing climate and shifting ocean conditions is essential for the long-term health of our fisheries. Fishery managers, scientists and the fishing industry must work collaboratively to develop adaptive, ecosystem-based strategies that promote resilience and ensure fishing practices remain sustainable in the face of climate change.

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For many years, the United States has taken pride in its world-class fishery management infrastructure which seeks to maintain sustainable fishing and abundant fish populations that can provide us with food and support businesses, recreation and culture. But a recent report from the agency that manages our marine fisheries reveals that while some progress has been made in the past year, many fish stocks around the country are at concerningly low levels of abundance. Even more alarming is that the steps we are taking to try to rebuild those fish stocks are rarely having an impact. Particularly as climate change disrupts our ocean and puts our fishing communities at risk, fishery managers need to act decisively to reverse these trends.  

Too Many Stocks are Still Overfished

NOAA’s Status of Stocks report, which is delivered every year to Congress, serves as a vital health check for U.S. fisheries. The 2023 report focuses on a few key metrics: the fish stocks currently subject to overfishing, the stocks that are overfished and the progress of rebuilding plans intended to bring previously overfished stocks back to healthy population sizes. These figures can give us insight into the effectiveness of existing management and areas where improvements are needed.

Overfishing occurs when fish stocks are fished harder than they can naturally replenish. The report notes that 6% of known stocks are currently experiencing overfishing. That’s an all-time low, which is good news; however, the number hasn’t budged much for a decade. Despite efforts to reduce overfishing, the trend reveals a concerning stagnation, particularly because some stocks, like greater amberjack in the Gulf of Mexico, have remained subject to overfishing for more than 20 years. If continued unchecked, overfishing leads to stocks becoming overfished, which threatens the livelihoods of communities that rely on fishing as well as our sustainable food supply of fish. which threatens our sustainable food supply and the livelihoods of communities that rely on them.

When a stock is declared overfished, it signifies that the population has declined to a level where it can no longer sustainably support fishing in the long term. A primary purpose of managing our fisheries is to avoid creating overfished stocks, not only because of the impact that has to the environment, but also because it can devastate fishing communities. Rebuilding a stock back to a healthy level once it’s overfished is difficult and includes restricting fishing while the population grows, which can take decades. The challenge of rebuilding is exacerbated by climate change, which adds further complexity to the problem. Shifting ocean temperatures, changing currents and acidification are just a few of the impacts that make it even harder for overfished stocks to recover. At the same time, rebuilding stocks is more critical now than ever before because abundant and resilient stocks are better able to handle these climate impacts.

Efforts to Rebuild Stocks are Struggling 

When a stock becomes overfished, managers must put a rebuilding plan in place for restoring its size back to target levels. These plans typically involve reducing catch limits and implementing other strategies that allow the stock size to grow. The 2023 Status of Stocks report celebrates a milestone, marking the 50^th stock rebuilt since 2000 with the Snohomish coho salmon. However, this figure only tells part of the story. Rebuilding progress has been stalling out—just three stocks have been rebuilt since 2019—and the number of stocks in rebuilding plans has increased and is now up to 48. Furthermore, 11 of the 50 rebuilt stocks being celebrated in the report have since become overfished again, with nine still in the process of rebuilding a second time. This indicates that fishery management is failing to keep stocks at healthy levels and struggling to recover them when they decline into being overfished. 

As seen from the figure above, rebuilding progress has tapered off since the early 2010s. Ideally, what we would see is the total number of rebuilt stocks rising, and the number of overfished stocks falling. That had been happening until about 2017, when the number of overfished stocks started rising and the number of rebuilt stocks stayed relatively flat. This pattern is troubling, underscoring a critical need for improvement.

Rebuilding is Critical to Build Resilience to Climate Change 

The reality is that rebuilding is becoming both increasingly important and increasingly difficult. A changing climate complicates traditional management approaches, which rely on the assumption that the future will look (roughly) like the past. Yet, climate change doesn’t change the reality that managers, scientists and fishermen must still work together to bring stocks back to target population sizes when they are overfished. And climate change is far from the only factor that can explain shortcomings in rebuilding progress. Fishery managers need to do more to end overfishing on overfished stocks and put plans in place that are robust enough actually to rebuild successfully. 

These conditions highlight the urgency of improving data collection and incorporating climate and ecosystem considerations into management measures. Yet, despite this need, only 8% of 2022 stock assessments—the primary vehicle by which a stock’s health is determined—included ecosystem measures. Furthermore, a report by the GAO found that only a quarter of fishery management plans considered “climate-related information.” This lack of climate-change preparedness impedes rebuilding efforts, as strategies that don’t account for climate-related impacts risk further stagnation of and decline in the health of our fisheries. These concerns are compounded by the fact that, of the 506 stocks managed by NOAA, we only know the overfishing status of 72% and the overfished status of 52% of them. That means that, in addition to inadequate climate data, there is significant uncertainty regarding the baseline health of hundreds of our fish stocks.

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Four Impacts of Ocean Warming

A mollusk swims up to a sea cucumber. The mollusk looks around at the reef and says (because in jokes everyone talks) to the sea cucumber, “I think we’re in hot water.” I’m no clownfish, but I think Marlin may have told this joke if Finding Nemo came out in 2024. 

You might ask why a fish would make jokes about the temperature. Well, if you have been reading the news or following our blogs, you know the ocean is getting hotter due to humans burning fossil fuels. In fact, 90% of all global warming is occurring in our ocean. April 2024 was the thirteenth month in a row that the global monthly sea surface temperature was the warmest on record and the North Atlantic broke temperature records 421 days in a row. It’s not just the temperatures which are alarming but how much higher these temperatures are between now and previous years: 0.5°F more than previous years whereas previous records were often broken by a margin of 0.1°F or less. Warming is devastatingly worse than expectations.

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Imagine you were in your living room, and someone dialed up the thermostat. Would you be uncomfortable? Would you choose a different meal or a cold drink? Change locations? What if the temperature continued to rise?

Like humans, fish, marine mammals and all the living creatures in the sea are sensitive to temperature fluctuations, and unfortunately, rising temperatures are no joke for ocean life. Here are four ocean (of many) impacts that will continue to get worse without ambitious climate action:

1. Coral bleaching
   When temperatures rise in the ocean, corals become stressed and expel their symbiotic algae which produce the beautiful colors we associate with reefs (including Marlin and Nemo’s home). Without the algae, corals turn a ghostly white and become vulnerable to starvation and disease. Mass coral die offs have taken their toll on iconic reefs around the world, from Florida to the South Pacific. Clownfish, and other reef animals, suffer as well exhibiting stress, behavior changes and decreasing in abundance. 
2. Fish on the move
   Fish, and the other animals who depend upon them, prefer a specific temperature range. As waters warm, these species move towards Earth’s poles and deeper to find cooler water. Fish shifting their geographic range may see population declines. The climate-driven migration puts marine mammals, like whales, at risk because they are following these prey species and moving into new locations, which could bring them into contact with shipping lanes. Fishermen may have to shift the species they fish for or the locations where they fish, which has impacts on fishing-dependent communities.
3. Harmful algae blooms
   Higher ocean temperatures, when combined with excess nutrients from water pollution (think runoff from stormwater, sewage overflows and agriculture), can result in more frequent and intense harmful algal blooms (HABs). These HABs, which have occurred in 82% of coastal countries, can create areas in the ocean with little to no oxygen and also produce toxins which kill marine animals and threaten public health and coastal economies. HABs are also found in Arctic waters as a result of ocean warming in this chilly region.
4. Coastal ecosystem loss
   On top of these impacts, coastal ecosystems face additional threats from a hotter ocean, too. For example, oyster reefs along the coast (and people who eat them) are threatened by dangerous bacteria, like Vibrio, which thrive in warmer waters. Warmer water expands and causes glaciers and sea ice to melt; these impacts combine to result in higher sea levels. Sea level rise is drowning coastal plants like seagrass and causing erosion, especially during increasingly severe storms. Ocean warming is reducing the natural protection our coastal habitats offer to nearby communities.

A warmer ocean puts the whole world in hot water. The more we drill for and use oil and gas for energy and plastics, the hotter our ocean will continue to get. 

But we can protect our ocean by phasing out oil and gas, including offshore drilling, and switching to renewable energy sources, such as responsible offshore wind and other marine renewable energy. 

While this might mean building in the ocean, there are responsible and just ways to ensure offshore wind is safe for the marine environment and coastal communities. In the end, the long-term risks of climate change and inaction pose a far greater threat to the ocean and all life that depends on it.

Ocean Conservancy is leading the global push for 100% clean, responsible ocean energy by 2050 to help address climate change and protect the ocean. Join the fight by taking action to protect our ocean and coasts.

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How Ambush Predators Rule the Waves

Our ocean is home to a diverse range of species that carry out their daily activities with little concern. Take the surgeonfish, which spends its days peacefully grazing on the green and brown algae of coral reefs. But, beneath this tranquility, ambush predators patiently hunt for their next meal.

“Ambush predators,” or “sit-and-wait predators,” use a unique hunting strategy. Unlike their counterparts, “pursuit predators,” that rely on speed and endurance to chase down their prey, ambush predators conserve energy by concealing themselves. They wait for the right moment to launch a sudden, overwhelming attack aimed at swiftly incapacitating their target. Let’s take a closer look at how ambush predators hunt.

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Attracting

Marine ambush predators use a variety of tactics to draw their prey within striking distances. For example, stonefish have excellent camouflage—their bodies are typically brown with orange, yellow or red patches and are textured to resemble the surrounding rocks or coral. Stonefish use this to their advantage while hunting and will wait for fish to swim by and then swiftly attack and swallow their prey.

Assessment

The next phase of an ambush predator’s hunting strategy is assessment. Ambush predators must time their strikes carefully, detecting prey, assessing if it’s worth attacking and striking when it is in exactly the right place. Ambush predators have evolved a variety of adaptations to facilitate this assessment. The appropriately named tripodfish uses its extremely long front fins to identify prey since it lacks proper vision in low-light environments.

Capture

Following the assessment phase comes the crucial moment of capturing prey. Ambush predators have adaptations for swiftly and securely seizing their victims. The frogfish uses suction to draw both water and prey into its mouth, followed by swallowing and closing the esophagus with a muscular mechanism to prevent escape. The frogfish captures its prey in as fast as six milliseconds.

Why you should care

Ambush predators use their amazing evolutionary adaptations to hunt their prey and survive. Though they may sound like bullies, this couldn’t be further from the truth; ambush predators play a vital role in maintaining the ecological balance in marine ecosystems through regulating prey populations. Their existence is essential for a healthy ocean. 

Unfortunately, ambush predators aren’t immune to threats like climate change, risky drilling and plastic pollution. That’s why Ocean Conservancy is working tirelessly to protect our ocean from today’s greatest challenges. We are on the front lines of ocean protection, investing in research, leadership and advocacy that advance evidence-based solutions. But we can’t do it without you. Take action and join the fight to protect our ocean, marine wildlife and the communities that depend on it.

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